A Slippery Slope Towards Extinction:

The Copperbelly Water Snake

Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta

Connor Cody

BIO 227-01

Description and Ecology:

      The Copperbelly Water Snake or Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta is found in the United States, specifically in Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio, as well as in Illinois and Kentucky. The Copperbelly is a midwestern sub-species of the Plainbelly water snake that ranges throughout the central and southeastern United States. This water snake can grow up to lengths of 40 to 50 inches, but on average they range from two to four feet long. The female Copperbelly grows much larger than the male, so it is common to assume that a Copperbelly longer than 30 inches is a female. Adult Copperbelly snakes are dark brown to black on their dorsal surface (top or back), while their underside is a bright orange-red or sometimes even a yellowish color that extends all the way to their chin, thus giving them the name Copperbelly. The Copperbelly is a non-venomous snake species that actually hibernates during the winter. They tend to hibernate in crayfish burrows or forested wetlands from late October until late April, then emerge as the weather warms to prey and mate in the warmer waters. The main food source of the Copperbelly snake is small amphibians, such as frogs and tadpoles, which they hunt in shallow waters. In the spring (after hibernation), the Copperbelly snakes begin courtship and eventually find a mate. After mating, the young snakes are either born in the fall or during the winter, usually in a litter of on average 18 baby snakes. These young snakes have to learn to hunt for their food in the following months so that they can be ready for the following winter’s hibernation.

Geographic and Population Changes:

      The Copperbelly’s habitat is a range of shallow wetlands surrounded by forested uplands, distributed throughout a large area. Copperbelly snakes can be found in two main areas, dividing them into two populations, the northern population and the southern population. The northern population is found in southern Michigan, northeastern Indiana, and northwestern Ohio. The southern population is found in southern Indiana, southern Illinois, and northwestern Kentucky. Although there are two populations of Copperbelly snakes, only the northern population is listed as “threatened,” and thus protected by the Endangered Species Act, due to its declining number of overall snakes as indicated in surveys over the past 20 years. “Threatened” means likely to become endangered in the near future, whereas “endangered” means in danger of becoming extinct. Currently only five small sub-populations exist in the northern region. The decline of the northern population of Copperbelly snakes is mainly due to habitat destruction and fragmentation, caused by humans and human development.

Listing Date and Type of Listing:

As of February 28, 1996, the northern population of Copperbelly snakes has been listed as threatened and therefore protected by the Endangered Species Act. The Endangered Species Act makes it illegal to kill, collect, or harm the Copperbelly snake within the northern population area, or roughly above Indianapolis, Indiana.

     

Main Threats to Continued Existence:

      The Copperbelly snake is considered threatened because only a few hundred snakes populate the northern region. Their population has declined over the past 20 years due to collection and predation, as well as habitat loss and fragmentation. Copperbelly water snakes are collected for the pet trade because of their large size, rarity, and unique color. However, the Endangered Species Act has
made the collection of Copperbelly snakes illegal without a permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and these permits are only given when the collection is for the conservation of the species. Predation is another reason for the decline of the Copperbelly snake. Copperbelly snakes move from wetland to wetland as water levels rise and fall and prey numbers dwindle and rise. As the snakes move from location to location, they are vulnerable to predators such as skunks, raccoons, raptor birds, and snapping turtles, but the main cause of the Copperbelly snakes’ dwindling numbers is due to humans. Human development of roads, housing, flood control, and agriculture causes fragmentation of the large area that the Copperbelly snakes require to survive. The Copperbelly snakes require a large area of land that consists of wetlands and uplands. When human development infringes on this habitat, it fragments or breaks up the necessary wetlands and uplands, and the fragmented habitat can no longer support the water snake population.

Recovery Plan:

Under the Endangered Species Act, a Copperbelly Water Snake Recovery Plan has been developed and implemented in order to help the northern population avoid extinction. This plan calls for local communities and private landowners to cooperate with the volunteers and researchers in the protection and improvement of the wetlands and uplands in which the Copperbelly snakes dwell. Funding by conservation organizations, as well as federal and state funding, has been used to fuel wetland restoration and upkeep. This funding goes towards tree planting, land protection in key areas, research, and general wetland upkeep, as well as wetland and upland improvement and protection. All of these actions together will help to improve the Copperbelly’s dwindling habitat, as well as reduce the rapid habitat fragmentation. This protection of wetland areas also protects the frogs and tadpoles in this region, thus sustaining a vital food source for the Copperbelly snakes.

What Can We Do to Help?

      The main thing we can do to support the Copperbelly snake is to raise awareness regarding its threatened status. Many people who infringe upon Copperbelly habitats are not aware of the impact of their actions. These people are farming, building roadways and homes, and are developing upon Copperbelly habitat lands, effectively destroying the Copperbelly’s ability to thrive. Because Copperbellies need a large area of land that consists of both wetlands and uplands, they are extremely vulnerable to habitat fragmentation caused by human development. If local communities and private landowners are educated regarding the impact their actions have on the habitat of the Copperbelly snake, they can determine ways to reduce the destruction of the snakes’ habitat. These small efforts, along with funding dedicated to the research and continuation of the Copperbelly Snake Recovery Plan, will lead to increasing numbers of Copperbellies in the northern region, enabling the northern Copperbelly to be removed from the Endangered Species Act’s threatened list and to avoid extinction.

Resources:

Recovery Plan-

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/081223.pdf

US Fish and Wildlife Service-

http://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/pub/speciesRecovery.jsp?sort=2

https://www.fws.gov/Midwest///Endangered/reptiles/cws/cwsFactSht.html

https://www.fws.gov/Midwest/endangered/reptiles/cws/index.html

Michigan Natural Features Inventory-

https://mnfi.anr.msu.edu/abstracts/zoology/Nerodia_erythrogaster_neglecta.pdf

Center for Reptile and Amphibian Conservation and Management-

http://www.nature.org/cs/groups/webcontent/@web/@greatlakes/documents/document/prd_064462.pdf

Federal Register-

https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2008/12/23/E8-30489/approved-recovery-plan-for-the-copperbelly-water-snake-northern-distinct-population-segment

Polar Bears - Adam Chmielewski

Sperm Whale (Cruz Calderhead)

Sperm Whales Fighting to Make a Comeback

Description & Ecology of Sperm Whales

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/species/Spermwhale.shtml

A Sperm Whale (Scientific name: Physeter macrocephalus) is the largest toothed predator and whale in the world. Sperm Whales also have the largest brain out of any animal on Earth. Males can be as long as 18 meters, weighing up to 57 tons, living up to 60 years old. While females can reach up to 12.5 meters, weigh 24 tons, and live all the way to 80 years old. Their bodies are a dark grey color with a white long rod shaped jaw that has 26 pairs of teeth within it. Their dorsal fins are relatively small, non pointed, and thick. These dorsal fins are distinctive and scientists take pictures of them to identify them so they can follow their behavior. In their massive, very distinct, foreheads they have a large amount of a high quality oil called spermaceti which is how they got they name Sperm Whales. Like many whales they use echolocation to compensate for their relatively small eyes on the sides of their head. Using echolocation, Sperm Whales dive up to 1000 meters in search for their main food source, squid and fish. They eat a literal ton of fish and squid each day. Sperm whales are distributed all around the ocean from very warm tropical waters all the way to icy waters and everywhere in between. 

https://i.ytimg.com/vi/5QiTShvfiqQ/hqdefault.jpg

Geographic & Population Changes of Sperm Whales

http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/species/Spermwhale.shtml

Sperm Whales have not had a change in their geographic distribution because they are found all over the ocean from tropical waters into higher latitudes where there is pack ice. The distribution has not gone down for these whales but the overall population density has taken a impact. So all around the ocean there has been less Sperm Whales mostly due to previous hunting for their spermaceti. There has been one geographic spot where the population has taken a more intense hit which is the South Pacific. The South Pacific is a known whaling grounds between Galapagos and Marquesas. 

Main Threats Today & Cause of Listing

Sperm whales main threat used to be whaling. Since they were hunted so intensely they are listed as a endangered animal. They used to be hunted for their spermaceti because it was a very high quality oil, spermaceti has now been replaced with more humane alternatives. The new reason to hunt for whales is for their meat which is consumed by humans. There is a loophole that crooked scientists take advantage of, where they say they're whaling for scientific reasons but they then sell the whale meat for public consumption. There are other potential threats to Sperm Whales today like collisions with vessels, entanglement in fishing gear, less squid and fish due to overfishing, habitat degradation, and disturbance from anthropogenic noise. There is also a potential threat to their health because of bio magnification of mercury.

http://stories.anmm.gov.au/why-save-whales/impact-of-whaling/

Recovery Plan

The original threat to Sperm Whales (whaling for their spermaceti) was acknowledged by the IWC’s whaling moratorium. The recovery plan wants to keep this strategy in place and make sure it now trys to face the problem of scientific whaling. A important part of this recovery plan is to get a accurate idea of the populations structure since it has been hard to keep record of since their populations are discrete. The recovery plan is trying to get a population size and distribution of the pods they travel in. Since sperm whales are widely found around the sea they will need all nations to work together to make this recovery plan work. 

  

What Can You do to Help Sperm Whales Thrive?

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/WDC_Logo_H_D_CMYK.jpg

Since most people do not actively whale or eat whale meat, the most impactful thing you can do is to donate to organizations that fight whaling activities and to organizations that study sperm whales without harming them. You can also lower your carbon footprint to reduce global warming which would reduce habitat degradation and lower the amount of mercury in the ocean. Finally you can buy your seafood from sustainable fisheries so there is more fish and squid in the ocean for them to eat. 

Other Resources to Deepen Your Knowledge of Sperm Whales

11 facts about sperm whales:

http://mentalfloss.com/article/60449/11-blubbery-facts-about-sperm-whales

EDGE (Endangered animals):

http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=109

NOAA fisheries:

http://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/whales/sperm-whale.html

Save the Whales:

http://www.savethewhales.org/about.html

Citations

"FINAL RECOVERY PLAN FOR THE SPERM WHALE." Office of Protected Resources National Marine Fisheries Service, Dec. 2010. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Society, National Geographic. "Sperm Whales, Sperm Whale Pictures, Sperm Whale Facts - National Geographic." National Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

"Sperm Whale - National Wildlife Federation." National Wildlife Federation. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

"Stop Whaling." WDC, Whale and Dolphin Conservation. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

WOODLAND CARIBOU

“Rangifer tarandus”

(Selkirk Mountain Population)

by: Fiona Carlsen

Description and Ecology

Woodland Caribou are a species in the deer family (Cervidae) with brown hair on their back and a white mane. Caribou differ from deer because of their large hooves and antlers. They have been around for over a million years, traced back to times of the woolly mammoth and French Exploration (Recovery Plan). This specific species of Caribou is broken into two ecotypes based on habitat, northern and mountain. The Selkirk Mountain population are of the mountain ecotype.

Geographic and Population Changes

The Caribou’s population has decreased immensely between 1961 and 2000. Before 1900, they could be found throughout much of Canada as well as many northern states in the U.S. (recovery plan). Now, a caribou sighting is rare in Montana and completely unheard of in Vermont, Maine, Michigan, and New Hampshire, where they used to be abundant. The Selkirk mountain population of caribou used to be found throughout Idaho as far south as the Salmon River, whereas now they are restricted to the Selkirk Mountains. The Selkirk Mountains are located in northeastern Washington, southeastern British Columbia, and northern Idaho. From 1950 to the early 1980s, this population has gone down from approximately 100 to 25-30 (recovery plan). In 2008, the 5-year recovery status states that there is up to 47 individuals due to efforts by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Listing Information

The Selkirk population of woodland caribou was emergency listed on January 14^th of 1983 (Recovery Plan). Their final status was listed on February 29^th of 1984. Even though the habitat has not fully recovered since its listing, a proposition is currently asking to downlist Rangifer tarandus from endangered to threatened. This was proposed in early 2014, but still has not been changed.

Cause of Listing/ Threats

Many threats faced the woodland caribou, especially due to their already small population size. Habitat Destruction, poaching, little regulation, and road construction all threatened the woodland Caribou (5-year Plan). In 1983 the Idaho Department of Fish and Game requested an assessment of the woodland caribou population under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (recovery plan). Roads and poaching seem to have caused the most deaths of caribou in the 1980s. Not only was human interaction an issue for caribou, but predation was high. Bears, mountain lions, and coyote are all predators to caribou and are abundant in the Selkirk mountains (Conservation Northwest). Another threat to Rangifer tarandus is their source of food. Lichen grow in old forests that take 80-150 years to grow (Defenders of Wildlife). As old growth forests continue to be burned and cut, Caribou food sources grow thin.

Recovery Plan

After the caribou were listed as endangered, the first recovery plan outlined a recovery zone that included habitat protection, law enforcement, and education programs (Recovery Plan). The most current recovery plan states that the objective is to, “maintain an increasing population, and to secure and enhance at least 179,000 hectares of habitat in the Selkirks (recovery plan).” Poaching decreased since the recovery plan went into action due to increase of police enforcement. Killing an endangered species will cost the poacher a lot of money if caught. The recovery plan also restricted motor vehicle use on many roads in the Selkirks which decreased the amount of deaths by motor vehicle. The main strategy of the recovery plan was to maintain the two herds and establish a third in Washington state (recovery plan).

What Can You Do?

As someone who doesn’t work for an environmental agency or the government, you must be wondering what you can do to help. The biggest thing that civilians can do to help the conservation of woodland caribou is raise awareness. Educating the population about endangered species is extremely helpful. The more people know about these animals, the more likely they are to not do something accidentally to harm them.

Cited

Https://www.facebook.com/DefendersofWildlife/. "Basic Facts About Woodland Caribou." Defenders of Wildlife. N.p., 29 Sept. 2016. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

"Mountain Caribou." Mountain Caribou — Conservation Northwest. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife. "Species Profile for Woodland Caribou (Rangifer Tarandus Caribou)." Species Profile for Woodland Caribou (Rangifer Tarandus Caribou). N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Nov. 2016.

Plan, Recovery. Selkirk Mountain Woodland Caribou (n.d.): n. pag. Web.

Review, 5-Year. Southern Selkirk Mountain Caribou Population (n.d.): n. pag. Web.

Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep - Alex Cain

The Climb to Recovery - Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep

Alex Cain - BIO 227

Description and Ecology(1,2)

Wild Sheep first populated North America after they crossed the Bering land bridge from Siberia.  In North America, wild sheep have diverged into two extant species, thinhorn and bighorn. The Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep are unique in that they have become a genetically isolated subspecies due to their divergence from bighorn sheep to the East and North.  These sheep are roughly five feet long and 3 feet tall(measured to shoulders), can weigh approximately 100-220 pounds, and live on average 10-15 years.  The most prominent feature of Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep is the large curled brown horns that continue to grow throughout their lives.

The Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep rely on two characteristics for survival in their environment.  First, their ability to to move swiftly across rocky slopes.  Second, their excellent eyesight at distance.  Both of these allow them to evade predators.  Therefore, Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep gravitate towards visually open, steep, rocky terrain.

Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep behavior also centers around mechanisms to avoid succumbing to predators.  First, they live in groups(divided by gender most of the year) as a way to have more eyes and ears looking out for predators.  This allows the group more time to feed and less time individually surveying surroundings.  Second, they are primarily active during the day.  Again, this allows these groups to utilize their eyesight as a means of avoiding predators.  

Geographic and Population Changes(1)

During the 1970’s Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep persisted in only two areas.    The contiguous Mount Baxter and Sawmill Canyon which consisted of a total of 220 sheep, 150 in the Mount Baxter herd and 70 in the Sawmill Canyon herd.  However, the Mount Williamson herd contained only 30 sheep.  Due to the larger size of the Mount Baxter and Sawmill Canyon herds, they were used as a sources of reintroduction stock.  Throughout the 1980’s this stock was used to reestablish populations at Wheeler Ridge, Mount Langley, Lee Vining Canyon, and the South Warner Mountains.  Unfortunately, the Warner Mountains herd died out in 1988 as a result of contact with domestic sheep.

The time between 1985 and 1995 saw a decline of about 60% of the total Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep population.  This was thought to be partially due to the harsh winter of 1995 and sheep attempting to live at the high elevations.  However, the population has bounced back and reached and estimated size of 350 in 2004.

Listing, Cause, Main Threats(1)

Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep were listed as an endangered species on January 3, 2000.  These sheep have received a priority number of 3 due to the small population size, fragmented distribution, high recovery potential, and because they are a distinct subspecies.  The main threats to the survival of the Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep include:

•  Disease: there is a potential for the transfer of disease organisms through contact with domestic sheep.  The most  significant disease threat is pneumonia.  This is considered a significant source of mortality and requires management.
• Predation: mountain lion predation on winter ranges has accounted for most of the known mortalities since the late 1970’s.  
• Population: independent groups of females, some containing less than 5, have been observed.  This small female population size alone make these sheep vulnerable to extinction.

Description of Recovery Plan(1)

The Recovery Plan for the Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep is designed to address the main threats to their survival and can be summarized as follows:

Protect bighorn sheep habitat: 

• Acquire key habitat areas from landowners
• Maintain quality of existing habitat

Increase population growth: 

• Temporarily protect sheep from predation losses
• Increase use of low elevation winter ranges
• Reduce risk of of sheep contracting diseases (prevent contact between bighorn sheep and domestic sheep)

Increase number of herds:

• Execute a strategy for the translocation of sheep 
• Develop sources of translocation stock

Implement a genetic management plan to maintain the genetic diversity of Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep

Establish a monitoring system that watches status and trends of bighorn sheep herds:

• Monitor predators, vegetation, disease exposure 

Continue needed research:

• Genetic population structure
• Develop population viability analysis
• Bighorn habitat use patterns and relative human use patterns
• Future introduction sites
• Effects of climate change on Bighorn sheep

What Can You Do?

There are many individuals who have dedicated themselves to the conservation of the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep and so can you!  A great way to get involved in through the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Foundation.  You can become and member or simply donate.  Please see the link below to join the movement helping the Sierra Nevada Bighorn sheep down their road to recovery!

http://sierrabighorn.org/

Work Cited
1) Recovery Plan for the Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep. Rep. Sacramento: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2007. Print.

"      2) Recovery Program." Sierra Nevada Bighorn Sheep Facts - California Department of Fish and Wildlife. California Department of Fish and Wildlife, n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.

Hawaiian Monk Seal - Austin Cosgrove

“Ilio Holo I Ka Uana”- “Dog That Runs in Rough Water”

Austin Cosgrove

Bio 227

Nov. 28 2016

Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus Schauinslandi)

Listed as Endangered

Description and Ecology:

This seal is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, though you are most likely to spot it in the Northwestern Islands that are free from human disruption. It is one of only two mammals that are endemic to Hawaii, and is the only seal found in Hawaii. It is closely related to the now extinct Caribbean Monk Seal as well as the also endangered Mediterranean Monk Seal. How the Hawaiian Monk seal branched out from the other two species can be learned by taking a look at Hawaiian Monk Seal Natural History Timeline. Among the previously mentioned Northwestern Hawaiian islands are eight main breeding sub-populations  where most of the Hawaiian Monk Seals live.

These seals spend about two thirds of their time out at sea, foraging for food either in the lagoons or around atolls that are home to fish abundant coral reefs. Although they mostly hunt for food near the immediate shoreline, they are also known to dive to depths reaching 1,000 feet and feast on crustaceans and eels. Breeding also occurs in the water, but the females come to land to give birth after a gestation period of 10-11 months. The mother will stay by the pup’s side for six weeks nursing it, and will not even leave its side to feed herself. These seals grow to be 375-450 pounds, and about 7 feet in length. The typical lifespan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal is 25-30 years.
Troubling Population Decline:   

Shown in the graph of abundance (population) of the 6 main subpopulations of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the population has  been in steady decline, and this has been the case well before 2002. In fact, the Hawaiian Monk Seal population has been in steady decline since the 1950’s, when the population was still recovering from nearly being hunted into extinction by whalers and sealers in the late 1800’s. Hawaiian Monk Seals were highly valued for their meat, skin and oil, and due In addition to the catastrophic wipe out of the population, another effect of the bottleneck phenomenon was a lack of genetic diversity. This leaves the remaining population extremely vulnerable to diseases such as a pathogen in cat feces that reaches the ocean through runoff, and has been responsible for the death of at least for Hawaiian Monk Seals.

Main Threats:

Hawaiian Monk Seal caught in a fishing net

In addition to susceptibility of disease, Hawaiian Monk Seals face a variety of other challenges on their road to recovery. Particularly for juveniles, finding food around the Northwest Hawaiian Islands can prove to be a tough task due to competing predators such as sharks, who themselves are predators of the Hawaiian Monk seals and a legitimate threat to population recovery. Another significant threat to the recovery of these seals is due to fishing nets and debris. From 1982 to 2014, 347 seals have been found to be caught in some kind of marine debris, the majority of which were rescued but at least 9 have died. And that’s just from reported entanglements!

Recovery Plan:

Outlined in the recovery plan that was drafted in 2007 are ways to minimize every possible threat to the Hawaiian Monk Seal population and ways to promote healthy growth of juveniles and especially females. The plan addressed ways to limit the crucial threats to the seals, which are food limitations, entanglement and shark predation. This chart is directly from the plan and outlines the cost of implementing the recovery plan.

Other Ongoing Recovery Acts:

Great efforts are being made to help with the recovery of these Monk seals. In September 2014, A Hawaiian Monk Seal hospital called “Ke Kai Ola” (The Healing Sea) opened its doors and has been working hard to ensure that each seal they encounter has the best possible chance at survival and healthy development. The $3.2 million dollar facility is a promising sign for the recovery of the monk seal, as it not only provides care for monk seals in need, but also raises awareness about these seals that are actually showing a growth in population among the main Hawaiian Island.

What Can You Do?

Due to Hawaii being a popular tourist destination, many visitors are not aware of the dire conditions facing the Hawaiian Monk Seal, therefore it is imperative that those on the island know about the situation these seals face. The Marine Mammal Center in Hawaii encourages anyone who spots a monk seal to report it immediately, as well as any entanglement threats to the seals. Also you can always donate to the Marine Mammal Center on their website at http://www.marinemammalcenter.org.

Works Cited

"The Marine Mammal Center." The Marine Mammal Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016.

"Protected Resources Division." NOAA :: National Marine Fisheries Service. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Nov. 2016

National Marine Fisheries Service. 2007. Recovery Plan for the Hawaiian Monk Seal (Monachus schauinslandi). Second Revision. National Marine Fisheries Service, Silver Spring, MD. 165 pp.